Reason This is why we make bad decisions at work and in life

Reason This is why we make bad decisions at work and in lifeReason This is why we make bad decisions at work and in lifeMany people think that the function of human reason is to help people make better decisions and reach more accuratebeliefs, largely on their own. Reason would help us overcome the limits of our intuitions - a set of cognitive mechanisms that function quickly and effortlessly, but that is prone to systematic mistakes.But as social and cognitive scientist Dan Sperber and I argue in our upcoming book,The Enigma of Reason,a mountain of empirical results show that reason performs this function very poorly. Indeed, in quite a few cases it has the opposite effects, driving people toward worse choices.When people face a decision - like figuring out whom to vote for or trying to solve a aufgabe in the workplace - they overwhelmingly find arguments that untersttzung theiroriginal hunch, whether its right or not.Instead of objectively assessing the different options, evalua ting their pros and cons, and making aya we have good reasons forour decisions,our reasoning mechanisms focus on arguments that support our anfangsbuchstabe views, and are content with relatively shallow arguments.This makes it particularly difficult to change our minds on our own. Far from correcting our intuitive mistakes, reason might even amplify them. As people find ever more arguments supporting their initial positions, they are wont to develop stronger attitudes and to become overconfident.Psychologists call this tendency to find reasons supporting our preordained beliefs the confirmation, or myside, bias. At first, this bias seems to be an unmitigated disaster. But then, why would we have it? As a rule, when our minds are biased, its because this bias has some utility.Sperber and I suggest that the myside bias serves social functions. To understand why this is the case, we must rethink the function of reason.We claim that reason didnt evolve because it serves solitary reason ers, but because it helps us interact with others.Thanks to reason, we can justify our creeds and our behaviors. We can explain to people why something that looks stupid in fact makes sense. And others can evaluate these justifications - if they are good enough, they might reconsider their initial negative judgments.Thanks to reason, we can also argue for our beliefs. We can provide people with reasons to change their minds and adopt the ideas or course of action we think most appropriate. Again, others can evaluate these arguments and, if they are good enough, change their minds to adopt our stance.From this perspective, it makes sense that reason should have a myside bias. If you want to justify your actions, or convince someone to share your views, you can only do so by finding reasons that support your actions or views, not reasons that challenge their validity.However, for reason to serve these social functions, it must also be able to evaluate others justifications relatively objectively. If we never changed our minds in reaction to a sensible justification or an apposite argument, the exchange of reasons would be pointless.If we are biased when we produce reasons, but relatively objective when we evaluate others reasons, then dialogues should be fruitful. After exchanging reasons, people should generally end up with a better understanding of each other, and with better ideas more generally. This prediction is supported by a very wide range of empirical studies, from studies of cooperative learning in schools to research on economic predictions.So what can you do to improve your reasoning at work?Reasoning works best in interactive settings, in the back and forth of a conversation. This means that reasoning should work best in relatively small groups of four to five people, when it is still possible to have a conversation.However, there are important trade-offs to consider. Small groups are less diverse, and theres always a danger that all their members agree with each other. In this case, the conversation is much less likely to be productive. Indeed, it might even be detrimental, as people share reasons that bolster their shared point of view - a phenomenon known as groupthink, or group polarization.So try to make sure that everybody doesnt agree, and let people who disagree share their opinions freely, without fear of repercussions. In the absence of spontaneous disagreement, a group member can play the role of the devils advocate.If youre unable to work with a group, try to make yourself consider other options and anticipate what others might think.For example, if youre creating apresentation,try to guesswhat your colleagues will thinkand incorporate that into your work.If you imagine yourself having to justify a decision to others - especially others whose opinions and abilities your respect - it can help motivate you to have better reasons. But its never going to be as good as having someone elses actual feedback.Hugo Merc ier is a cognitive scientist working at the Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod in Lyon, France, and the co-author ofThe Enigma of Reason.

3 Ways to Have the Upper Hand at Your Job - The Muse

3 Ways to Have the Upper Hand at Your Job - The Muse3 Ways to Have the Upper Hand at Your JobIn your personal life, you probably try to keep your relationships and friendships fairly equal.But when it comes to your job, and your relationship with what may be a large, powerful company, equality seems impossible. How can you have an equal- or at least mora equal- relationship with the company thats literally the source of all the money you use to purchase food and shelter?Its not great to feel beholden to a boss. Sure, things might be fine now, but what happens when you get a new, terrible manager? What happens when they move your office into a supply closet? Most employees have no bargaining chips. Dont spend your days feeling put-upon and powerless.Its up to you, the less equal party, to take pains to equalize that relationship.1. Make Money for Them (More Than They Pay You)One of the easiest ways to secure your job- and make your boss a little scared that a competitor is going to po ach you- is to make a lot of money for the company.This, of course, is also a great way to get a raise Generate revenue, and then ask for some of it.This can be easier in startups where everybody does a little of everything, and where someone who takes an interest in sales and the companys profitability might easily be granted access to the companys numbers and opportunities to generate revenue directly. In a position where I developed GRE curricula and wrote test prep books, I also did direct sales- teaching trial GRE classes that convinced people to sign up for the real thing. Showing skill and enthusiasm for sales didnt mean I had to become a full-time salesperson or sacrifice the more fulfilling aspects of my job.Of course, this is not possible in every job. But try to make it possible. Even if your job is teaching orphans abroad for a nonprofit- a seemingly non-money-making position- you could go above and beyond to produce the kind of collateral (pictures of cute kids, letters from cute kids, etc.) that brings in donations.Concurrently, work to gain responsibility such that you can actually know how much money your activities are generating.Whether you end up an MVP at your current position or job-hunting in the near future, youll find that ansicht skills are highly portable to a new job- and in many fields nothing sells your services better than empirical evidence that whoever hires you will make a hefty profit from doing so.2. Dont Be Dependent on Your JobMaking money for your company helps to even the score by making the company dependent on you, just as you are dependent on it.We can attack this from another angle, though. What if your immediate supervisor doesnt really care about the companys profitability, or your workplace is embroiled in petty personal disputes?One way to stay above it all is to have your rent covered, even if you have to walk out of that job tomorrow to preserve your dignity. Of course, an emergency fund is important- ideally, a t least three months salary in the bank. (Easier said than done, I know Try this for tips.)But what if your alternate source of revenue were actually sustainable?I have long advocated that everyone develop multiple income streams, possibly including investments, side hustles, consulting, digital products for sale, royalties, or a more growth-focused business that eventually becomes your main hustle. (Note Its fine to secure your main income stream before branching out.)Relatedly, I suggest everyone keep an entrepreneurial plan in her back pocket. Even if you have no interest right now in being an entrepreneur, well- if youre going to be in the working world for 40 more years, chances are there will come a time when youll have to be entrepreneurial. Youll have a once-in-a-lifetime idea, or the people around you will be so incompetent youll know you can do better on your own. Entrepreneurship is simply part of the modern career lifecycle.Take some classes on startups, join a coding wo rkshop, attend meetings of entrepreneurship and angel investing groups. Expand your network and your knowledge, and keep some ideas- just on a napkin is fine.Having that entrepreneurial plan in your back pocket can make you a tougher negotiator, whether you tell anyone about it or not- why would you agree to stay at a job that underpays you when you could go out and win market share on your own? Or maybe it just keeps you from taking bullshit from people, since you know you dont need the company, or your jerk co-workers. If you left the company, youd have plenty of options.3. Make Sure You Dont Act Dependent, EitherIn the korrekts of Dr. Strangelove, Of course, the whole point of a Doomsday Machine is lost if you keep it a secretIf youre networking three nights a week and conspiring over lunch about your future startup, you may not look like a team player. This is about interacting with your company on a peer level, not being egotistical or alienating everyone.You dont want to look like you have one foot out the door, or like youre hunting for a job. But you do want to look like someone who probably gets approached by other companies, even when youre not looking. Someone so capable and amazing that word just gets out.I worked for a company where clients regularly approached me and asked to work one-on-one, under the table. I always declined, and instead mentioned it to the CEO as a business opportunity, and suggested ways we could encourage clients to buy more services through official channels. This was not only the right thing to do, it also brought to the boss attention how much business I was attracting.There are lots of ways to become well-known in your field that dont conflict with your job- join an industry association or a mentoring organization, and volunteer for some official duty. Offer to write them some blog posts. Or get involved in charity work, or join a sports league, where you know youll meet others in your field.Dont go and totally revamp yo ur LinkedIn profile- thatll make it look like youre job-hunting. But one way to look like a superstar, without making anyone suspicious, is to get a shiny new testimonial every now and then. Sometimes, its perfectly appropriate to simply ask someone to leave you a testimonial. However, a more subtle way of doing so is to leave them a testimonial most people will return the favor. Soon, your LinkedIn page is looking very persuasive, even though you have apparently done nothing (except approve other peoples endorsements of you).You dont have to hard-bargain or brag about yourself to send the message that youre a superstar performer who would be an asset to any company- and you know it, but youre cool about it, because youre such a good colleague.It may seem that being a peer with a company isnt possible, but I think it is. Youve reached a healthy equilibrium when you like your job, but you dont need your job, and youd never debase yourself to keep it. Instead, youre a valued professio nal, currently working with a company to your mutual benefit, for as long as it works for both of you.Photo of card game courtesy of Shutterstock.

The secret to always being at your best, according to samurai

The secret to always being at your best, according to samuraiThe secret to always being at your best, according to samuraiReading a few books by samurai, there was one thing I saw repeated again and again and again that surprised me.It has nothing to do with swords, fighting, or strategy.Actually, quite the opposite when you think about it.What did so many of historys greatest warriors stress as key to success and optimal performance?Being calm.And it wasnt one random samurai mentioning it off the cuff.Were talking about some of the greatest samurai who ever lived writing about it over and over for five hundred yearsShiba Yoshimasa(1349-1410)For warriors in particular, if you calm your own mind and discern the inner minds of others, that may be called the foremost art of war.Suzuki Shosan(1579-1655)When you manage to overcome your own mind, you overcome myriad concerns, riseabove all things, and are free. When you are overcome by your own mind, you are burdened by myriad concerns, su bordinate to things, unable to rise above. Mind your mind guard it resolutely. Since it is the mind that confuses the mind, dont let your mind give in to your mind.Kaibara Ekken(1630-1714)A noble man controls frivolity with gravity, awaits action in a state of calm. It is important for the spirit to be whole, the mood steady, and the mind unmoving.Adachi Masahiro(1780-1800)The imperturbable mind is the secret of warfare.And, of course, the man probably considered the greatest samurai of them all, Miyamoto Musashi, in his classic,The Book of Five RingsBoth in fighting and in everyday life you should be determined though calm. Meet the situation without tenseness yet not recklessly, your spirit settled yet unbiased.Nobody really needs to sell us on the value of staying calm.You know the benefits you think clearly, you dont make rash decisions, you dont get scared.But how do you get and stay calm?Our society is energy drinks, 24-hour news cycle, Starbucks on every corner, and relentles s social media feeds. GO GO GO.And even funnier, much of what we know about relaxing and being calm is dead wrong.The samurai had answers. And they line up with the science. Here we go.The scientific samurais guide to staying chillThe samurai trained in martial arts a lot and they thought about death a lot.Really, they thought about death a lot.ViaCode of the Samurai A Contemporary Translation of the Bushido ShoshinsOne who is supposed to be a warrior considers it his foremost concern to keep death in mind at all times, every day and every night, from the morning of New Years Day through the night of New Years Eve.Hey, you would too. Death was pretty much in their job description, right?But research showstraining very hard and imagining the worst that could happen are two powerful techniques for promoting calm.Samurais trained relentlessly.They strongly believed you should always be prepared (they were like the deadliest Boy Scouts imaginable.)Research shows that preparation reduces fear because when things get tense, you dont have to think.Who survives catastrophic scenarios like samurai battles? The people who have prepared.Via David McRaneysYou Are Not So SmartAccording to Johnson and Leach, the sort of people who survive are the sort of people who prepare for the worst and practice ahead of timeunterstellung people dont deliberate during calamity because theyve already done the deliberation the other people around them are just now going through.And how about all that thinking about death?Negative Visualization is one of the main tools of ancient Stoicismand science backs it up.Really thinking about just how awful things can be often has the ironic effect of making you realize theyre not that bad.From myvorstellungsgesprch with Oliver Burkeman, author ofThe Antidote Happiness for People Who Cant Stand Positive ThinkingIts what the Stoics call, the premeditation that theres actually a lot of peace of mind to be gained in thinking carefully and in detail an d consciously about how badly things could go.In most situations youre going to discover that your anxiety or your fears about those situations were exaggerated.Okay, but you dont want to spend all day training in sword-fighting or thinking about death.I get that. Frankly, neither do I.So whats the key here?Research shows the most powerful way to combat stress or anxiety - to stay calm - is to have a feeling of control.For samurai, training tirelessly and visualizing the worst that could happen gave them a feeling of control while in battle.The US military dramatically increased Navy SEAL passing rates by teaching recruits psychological methods for gaining a feeling of control.Without a feeling of control, when stress gets high we literally cant think straight.ViaYour Brain at Work Strategies for Overcoming Distraction, Regaining Focus, and Working Smarter All Day LongAmy Arnsten studies the effects of limbic system arousal on prefrontal cortex functioning. She summarized the impo rtance of a sense of control for the brain during an interview filmed at her lab at Yale. The loss of prefrontal function only occurs when we feel out of control. Its the prefrontal cortex itself that is determining if we are in control or not.Even if we have the illusion that we are in control, our cognitive functions are preserved. This perception of being in control is a major driver of behavior.Anything that gives you afeeling of controlover your situation helps you keep your cool.So what does it for you?More information? Practice? Support from others?Thats the thing that will help you keep your cool like a samurai.Note I said feeling of control - it doesnt even have to be legit control, justfeelinglike you do can work wonders.Even a good luck charm can help - because good luck charms really do work.Good luck charms provide a feeling of control, and that feeling of control actually makes people perform better with them.ViaThe Courage Quotient How Science Can Make You Braverpeo ple with a lucky charm performed significantly better than did the people who had none. Thats right, having a lucky charm will make you a better golfer, should you care about such things, and improve your cognitive performance on tasks such as memory games.Sum upI know what some of you are thinkingCalm? Arent samurai the ones always screaming at the top of their lungs while waving a sword?Thing is, that was adeliberatetactic to frighten their enemies.Musashi explainsIn single combat, also, you must use the advantage of taking the enemy unawares by frightening him with your body, long sword, or voice, to defeat him. . . In single combat, we make as if to cut and shout Ei at the same time to disturb the enemy, then in the wake of our shout we cut with the long sword.Sneaky. These are the kind of smart ideas that come from a cool head.The samurai were great warriors. They fought against their enemies in epic battles.But as Musashi and the others make clear in their writings about being calm, the most important battle is to overcome yourself.ViaThe Book of Five RingsToday is victory over yourself of yesterday tomorrow is your victory over lesser men.Join 45K+ readers.Get a free weekly update via emailhere.Related posts4 Lifehacks From Ancient Philosophers That Will Make You HappierWhat 10 things should you do every day to improve your life?How To Make Your Life Better By Sending Five Simple EmailsThis article originally appeared at Barking Up the Wrong Tree.